研究中国文库精选辑细分小切口看近代中国史套装共5册电子书|百度网盘下载

卞小刚

2022-4-17

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编者注：细细剖析中国近代史

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简介

《君臣：清中期（1723-1820）军机处》

传统观点认为，军机部成立于清朝雍正年间，标志着两千多年来专制皇权发展的顶峰。本书认为：军机处有一个渐进的建立过程，从雍正朝开始，到乾隆年间才有真正意义上的军机处；军机处逐渐扩大，君主专制让位给君臣合作，大臣可以限制君主的专横。本书利用台北、北京的汉文和满文档案，采用内外朝代的分析框架，对清代中期的军机部进行了深入细致的研究。政治史研究的杰作。

“银排的州县官员：18世纪中国合理化的财政改革”

这本书是关于“西方到来”之前的中国的。 18 世纪的中国不是“不变的”，而是一个充满活力的“变革”时期，这是一个对于强大的现代中国的潜在发展具有重要意义的改革时期。 “消费羡慕，回归大众”是金融体制改革重点领域的高潮。它不仅解决了前朝遗留下来的各种问题，而且是对当时各种金融危机的有效、合理的解决方案。各省因地制宜实施改革，自治充分，成效显着，利国利民，利官利民。然而，“消费嫉妒，回归大众”并不能一劳永逸地解决清朝所有的财政问题。改革从一开始就遭到抵制，加之中央集权国家的财政要求，社会经济状况的变化，以及对传统经济结构的根本性制约，后来的“消费嫉妒，回归大众”的政策是没有的。再辉煌。这是一部《在中国发现历史》的代表作，是一部用档案详细探索中国历史的代表作。

《红雨：中国一个县的七百年暴力》

根据长期理论，本书涵盖了从元末农民起义到1930年代第一次国内革命战争时期；研究区域集中在湖北麻城。这种“长时期”与小范围的结合，让本书挑战了普通著作的历史分期，提供了中国政治社会变迁的宏观视角，暗示了暴力超越了朝代和政权的永恒。作者对麻城地方历史的细致研究，也让本书加深了以往对当地社会的了解，在叙事中突出了对暴力的各个层面的感知，在非常紧张的气氛中为读者呈现了一幅精彩的历史画卷。 .

《严复与福泽由吉：中日启蒙思想的比较》

本书以中日启蒙思想为主题，以历史的纵向变迁和时代的横向关系为坐标，重点关注中国近代启蒙思想家严复和福泽由吉这两位具有代表性的人物。日本。分为时代篇、文化篇、思想篇和实践篇，从不同方面、不同维度系统地分析比较了中日现代启蒙思想，呈现了两位启蒙思想家的复杂形象、相同点和独特性。，作者对很多问题提出了自己的看法和观点。

“与战争和革命交织在一起的现代中国（1895-1949）”

这本书提供了这个转折点的全景描述。以时间为经，以主题为纬，以叙事史为骨干，结合政治学、社会学、文化学的视角和方法，阐释了半个世纪变革的方方面面，向我们展示了复杂的和痛苦的现代中国诞生。过程。

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第一章：时代背景——东方帝国的危机与抉择

中日同居世界东部，一水之隔。这两个东方国家的文明古国都高度发达，都具有强烈的文化民族主义特征。可以说，中国和日本是东方的两个古老国家，一大一小。然而，这两个古老的国家是如何陷入严重危机的呢？

1、中日封城及其悲剧

北宋哲人张载曾说：“雷动虽快，其源亦渐。”近代中日之间的危机不是突然的，也不是偶然的，而是与近代后期的中日闭关锁国有着密切的关系。

中国历史上最著名的外国征服是蒙古人统治中国的元朝。这种征服在其他方面是否具有积极意义，暂不讨论，但在开辟中西交流、促进中西文化交流方面，其意义不可否认。随着蒙古帝国的灭亡，明朝成为正统中国。明朝的对外关系发生了两件大事。一是郑和（又称三保太监）三度下西。 [1] 据记载，郑和下西洋号称拥有宝船数十艘，士兵数万，气势非凡。这可能会使哥伦布和麦哲伦的舰队相形见绌。这一壮举促进了中国造船和航海业的发展，扩大了中国与外界的文化、政治、经济交流，提升了中国在世界上的地位。另一个是西方传教士到中国的使命。以此为契机，中国开始对西方有了一定的了解和了解。传教士们带来西方科技和文物（摆钟、玻璃等），向中国精英介绍和传播西方科学文化。中西交往的历史主要从这里开始，对中华文化产生了一定的积极影响。

然而，这两个历史事件又是在明朝的“禁海令”下进行的。郑和下西洋并不是为了让明朝统治者真正开放和与世界其他国家交流，而主要是为了提升国家威望和巩固皇权。明正孝《明司仪考序》中说：“高帝为何有使臣？更始也。要成为西方先祖的偶像，难不成？而且对国家也有很大的怀疑。。”说“国之大疑”，是指“成祖怀疑惠帝陨落海外，欲追查，欲出兵异域，以示中国之盛世”（《明史》）王朝”，第3卷和第4卷，“郑和”）传道“）。传教士在中国传教实际上是在锁国大门打开的一个小缝隙中进行的。传教士千方百计地讨好中国人士大夫乃至皇帝，也只是勉强得到传教的地位。他们被关押、审查和迫害的主要原因也在这里。对此，《利玛窦中国笔记》有更详细的描述。 2]清朝建立后，锁国政策并没有完全改变，只是松松垮垮，一些士大夫强烈反对保留唐若望为秦天监掌门，认为他是负责公司制作历书。杨广贤曰：“中夏无好历，不如中夏有西人。” （杨广宪：《不幸，日食天象》）康熙帝表现出某种宽容，先是开关，又是禁海。

然而，清朝皇帝派人与罗马教廷就在华传教士的“礼仪之争”进行谈判，但无法妥协，一怒之下下诏给嘉乐： “《教皇条约》与中国的真理完全相悖。天主教不能在中国实行，所以必须禁止。如果没有宗教，西方人在中国传教是没有用的。”[3] 结果，国门被锁，这把锁已经用了100多年。到了1840年，国门再也锁不住，西方列强蜂拥而至，火光之下，中国的大门被打开了。

再看看日本。日本的封锁走的几乎和中国一样。日本在接触西方文明之前，其对外交往的主要对象是中国和朝鲜，不存在被拒之门外的问题。日本的封锁必须从接触西方文明开始。日本与西方的直接接触始于 1543 年葡萄牙人（当时称为南巴里人）航行到种子岛，向日本人传授铁炮、弹药和制造方法。此后，日本人与葡萄牙人的交往迅速扩大。铁炮和弹药的制造技术传播到日本各地，一些地方成为制造中心。武器的更新改变了日本的军事体系。与此同时，日本的对外贸易也很活跃。葡萄牙船只逐渐增多，九州大名争先恐后地欢迎葡萄牙人进入自己的领土，以追求贸易利益。 1578年（天正六年），葡萄牙船只开始进出相模三崎港（相当于现在神奈川县的大部分地区），与北条领主进行贸易活动。葡萄牙人航行到日本后不久，1549 年，天主教耶稣会传教士弗朗西斯·泽维尔（Francis Xavier）和日本萨摩武士矢次郎（因谋杀而逃亡）一起作为传教士出入马六甲的导游来到日本。 .之后，更多的传教士跟随。为了在日本传播消息，传教士与大名联手，并在可能的情况下让大名成为信徒。在大名的保护和帮助下，大名领地的人民皈依了。为了确保与葡萄牙人的贸易，大名也愿意与传教士联合，让他们在自己的领土上教书。正如贸易的发展使大名获得大量财富从而增强了他们的权力一样，传教工作在大名的保护下迅速传播。一些大名成为信徒，更多的平民入籍。到1582年，日本有近15万信徒，教堂也很多。

宣教的快速发展与日本文化产生了许多冲突，并发展为尖锐的对抗和斗争。天主教视上帝为天地万物的主宰，排斥一切其他神灵的存在，当然也包括日本的原神，这与日本固有的信仰相冲突。与此同时，以耶稣会传教士为代表的葡萄牙君主的权力也遭到了日本贵族贵族的反对。斗争只是时间问题。当时，丰臣秀吉在日本是一位有权势的大臣。他总是把宗教当作工具。一旦他觉得人们的异教信仰对他不利，他就迫害或禁止他们。这当然是一件大事。 1578年平定九州时，他震惊于外国传教士对大名的强大影响，长崎已成为教会领土。巧的是，他正守着菩萨的阵地，要求将大名马家地盘的美女带到自己的宿舍。但那些不断被选中的是天主教徒，他们坚持自己的教义。这让丰臣秀吉很是恼火。为了信仰，连女人都反抗权贵的大臣，这让他难以想象。丰臣秀吉颁布著名的《万丹连追令令》（万丹连为神父），称日本是神国，天主教是邪教，绝不能任其自生自灭，并下令所有传教士出境20 天内。于是，对教育的禁令开始了，对这个国家的封锁开始了。他禁止传教，下令驱逐传教士，并没收长崎地区的教会领土。不过，此时日本并没有禁止与葡萄牙进行贸易，仍有变相传教士乘商船来到日本。

日本真正的封锁是在德川家康时代完成的。当时，日本与西方的贸易正处于鼎盛时期。海外有10000多名日本移民，日本船只穿越太平洋。天主教不仅与大名联合，而且深入民间，其威力更大。这让家康觉得天主教已经成为他专制统治的障碍。与此同时，葡萄牙和西班牙对荷兰垄断对日贸易极为不满，企图征服日本，这也引起了家康的警惕。不再需要与葡萄牙和西班牙进行贸易，对天主教的宽容是多余的。家康决定取缔宗教，所以他杀死了信徒并烧毁了教堂。 All foreign ships other than Chinese ships are prohibited from entering and leaving the Sea of Japan, and Japanese are not allowed to conduct overseas exchanges. In short, through a series of measures and steps, Japan has completed a major lock-down in history.

The lock-off between China and Japan is directly related to Catholicism. In Japan, the missionary cause developed rapidly, affecting the absolute rule of Japanese feudal forces. At the same time, the development of Japan's trade with the West made the lords ("daimyo") of land or manor stronger, which was also detrimental to the autocratic rule of the Tokugawa shogunate. Therefore, the rulers implemented the policy of locking the country. In China, it is mainly caused by etiquette issues. China was originally not interested in trade. In order to prevent pirates from harassing, it is also a natural trend to strengthen the sea ban. However, China and Japan's isolation of the country is also indirectly related to its economic concept and self-centeredness (different levels of ethnicity). In the traditional Chinese and Japanese societies, the self-sufficient natural agricultural economy is the main body of the social economy. In Japan, merchants are at the bottom of society (scholars, farmers, workers, and merchants), and foreign trade is completely regarded as a dispensable thing. In China, there is a similar situation. Coupled with the certain richness of Chinese products, it is also feasible to refuse foreign trade. In 1793 (the fifty-eighth year of Qianlong), Emperor Qianlong said in his edict to King George III of England: "The products of the Celestial Dynasty are abundant, and they have everything. Magnetic ware and silk jins are necessary for Western countries and Ireland, so I am sympathetic to set up a foreign company in Macau, so as to have daily necessities and gain surplus profit.”[4] In this way, the desire and motivation for foreign trade just melted. In addition, China-Japan lock-in is also related to its self-centeredness. They all regard their own nation as the center of the world and the world, as the representative of civilization, and regard other nations or countries as uncivilized and barbaric, and as the state of barbarians. "The General Examination of Dynasty Literature - Siyi Kao 1" (Volume 293) said: "The middle earth lives in the earth, and the four rings of the Yinghai Sea. Those who live on the edge of the sea are called descendants. Overseas countries are also called descendants. Descendants are the edge of words.” Yamaga Suxing called Japan “the country in the middle” and boasted that “this dynasty has the right path of the sky and the center of the earth”, “although the four seas are vast and the countries are numerous”, “but it is not comparable to this dynasty. Compared with the country, even the Tang Dynasty is not as perfect as the current dynasty.”[5]

It is unfortunate, even tragic, that China and Japan are locked up in the country. It destroys the stimulating factors and vitality that foreign cultures can give, strengthens and consolidates the long traditional society, and makes the two countries lose the transition from traditional society to modern society.机会。 I dare to assert that if Western countries are closed to each other, they can only proceed on the road of feudal society, and capitalist society will not descend on their territory. There is a view in Western academic circles that the year 1500 was a turning point for Europe and the world. Before that, the world influenced Europe, and after that, Europe influenced the world. It was when Europe began to have an impact on the world that both China and Japan embarked on a long-term road of isolation. Let's take a look at Japanese scholars' understanding of the tragedy of Japan's lock-down. The Japanese historian Inoue Kiyoshi said: "Because of the country's lock-down, we neither understand the way to promote domestic commercial development nor the laws of economic development. Moreover, because of the lock-up of the country, although it can be said that a unique national culture has been formed, this uniqueness is A unique deformity that is isolated from the world and has in a closed society. Japan communicates with overseas countries, while foreigners come to Japan, and Japanese culture exchanges with foreign cultures. This is the development of a nation with a positive sense At the same time, there is a world-wide national culture.”[6] “Locking up the country makes society stagnant, and it is the fundamental reason for the exclusive and narrow-minded Japanese people who are rooted in the island country.”[7] Famous Japanese scholars and y Tetsuo also pointed out that in Japan, "the vitality of culture is not absent", but because of the country's lock-down, "the spirit o f infinite exploration and the spirit of expanding horizons has not been realized, or it has been assassinated on the way to realization. A spiritual adventure. The heart shrinks here" [8]. He added: "At the beginning of modern times, since the development of new science, it took Europeans and Americans three hundred years to infiltrate the spirit of science into every corner of life. The Japanese nation, however, locked up the country on the way to its development. For the next two hundred and fifty years, the influence of this modern spirit was blocked by the power of the state.”[9] Their analysis is also suitable for China. All in all, under the lock of the country, there will be disasters; when the army is under the city, it is bound to attack the door. The Western powers are under pressure, and the Eastern Empire is in an unprecedented crisis.

Second, the founding of China and Japan and their correspondence

Under the pressure and attack of the warships and artillery fire of the Western powers, the door of China and Japan's lock was finally opened, and it was forced to open the country. The process of the founding of China and Japan was carried out under the signing of a series of unequal treaties, which largely lost subjectivity and selectivity. The first is China, which started with the Opium War in 1840. As a result, China was defeated and had to. In 1842, China and Britain signed the "Jiangning Treaty" (also known as "Ten Thousand Years Peace Treaty" and "Nanjing Treaty"), which is the first in modern Chinese history. an unequal treaty. Following the Opium War, in 1856, the British and French allied forces launched the second Opium War; in 1883, France launched the Sino-French War; in 1894, Japan took advantage of the fire, and this country that had just escaped the aggression of Western powers provoked the Sino-Japanese Sino-Japanese War. ; In 1900, the Eight-Power Allied Forces launched a war of aggression against China. These wars all ended in a disastrous defeat for China. The failure was accompanied by a series of unequal treaties, the Treaty of Tianjin (1958), the Treaty of Peking (1860), the Sino-French New Treaty (1885), the Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895) , "Xin Chou Treaty" (1901) and so on have been signed. These treaties plunged China into the abyss of conquered territories, and the Chinese nation was at the juncture of life and death. In this way, China was forced to open a country.

The Western powers defeated China, much to the shock of Japan. The Japanese never imagined that their "teacher" for a long time would be defeated by the Europeans at one time. They competed with legends to describe the failure of China's Opium War, and to take this as a warning. But before Japan could figure out a countermeasure, foreign powers flocked to Japan. In 1844, King Willem II of the Netherlands sent a letter to the Japanese shogunate, suggesting that Japan should be founded. Among the European and American powers, Russia was the first to request Japan to trade, but it was rejected by the Japanese shogunate. Then, Britain, France and the United States were dispatched. Their warships sailed into Japanese ports, and Japan's coastal defenses were teetering. On the one hand, the Japanese shogunate tried to resist, but felt insufficient strength; on the other hand, although it felt that the country could no longer be locked, it did not have the courage to start a country. In this indecision, in the confusion of what to do, the great powers acted both hard and soft, forcing Japan to sign one unequal treaty after another. In 1854, under the threat of the American fleet of Matthew Calbraith Perry, the shogunate signed the Japan-US Goodwill Treaty with it. In 1858, at the strong request of the United States, Japan signed the "Japan-US Friendship and Commerce Treaty" (also known as the "Edo Treaty") with the United States; in addition, it also signed the "Commercial Treaty" with the Netherlands, Britain and France.

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